Scientists have been studying the reasons why some people don't like the taste of certain vegetables. They found that people inherit(遗传)some genes from their parents that cause them to like or dislike certain vegetables.
In their research about tastes, scientists found that there are three types of people in the world. First, there are non-tasters, who are not very sensitive to sweet-tasting foods or bitter-tasting foods. The people of the second type are just called tasters, and those of the third are super tasters who are very sensitive to sweet and bitter flavors. Children of the third type, who are super-tasters, will probably not like vegetables such as broccoli and Brussels sprout because of their bitter taste. This is unfortunate, because super-tasters might avoid eating foods that are important for their health.
The scientists said that thousands of years ago. On the other hand, super tasters actually had an advantage over other types of people. At that time, super-tasters could avoid eating bitter-tasting poisonous plants which other types of people would eat.
From this research about tastes, we learn some interesting things about super-tasters. For one thing, super-tasters have more taste buds(味蕾)on their tongues. And, to super-tasters bitters foods taste very bitter, and sweet foods taste very sweet. Super-tasters might also not like spicy food made with chili pepper, because it would be too hot for them. Furthermore, female supper-tasters probably won't be very fat, but they do seem to enjoy cooking more than other types of people.
Find in the passage a word closest in meaning to the underlined word "spicy".
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What do scientists call those people who are not very sensitive to sweet-tasting or bitter-tasting foods? (回答词数不超过2个)
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According to the scientists, why don't some people like the taste of certain vegetables? (回答词数不超过9个)
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What would prevent a super-taster from eating food important for their health? (回答词数不超过8个)
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Swimming is one of those activities that can be learned early in life. Little children can learn to swim as soon as they walk. In fact, you need the same skills in walking as in swimming. However, I believe that five is the best age to learn. By five or six, a child knows fear of water, a very important thing to know. It’s wise to be afraid, to recognize true danger. Young ones understand that the water can sometimes be very dangerous.
To really benefit from swimming, every swimmer should learn ; butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and crawl. I feel that one of these — the breaststroke — is different from the others, since some young swimmers use this stroke naturally, without any training.
In swimming, there are certain rules every swimmer should follow:
(1) Never swim alone! No matter how good you are in the water, don’t risk drowning by swimming alone. If you swim by yourself, with no life guards or friends with you, you may get into trouble.
(2) Don’t go beyond your abilities. Most swimmers know enough not to swim too far from the bank or the beach. Showing off by doing dangerous tricks is no good. Swim safely and you will continue to swim and alive.
(3) Don’t smoke .Swimming depends on a healthy body; good lungs are part of it.
(4) Work at any activity that builds muscles.
What is the main idea of the passage? (no more than 10 words)
Which age is best for a child to learn swimming? ( no more than 2 words )
Fill in the blank in Paragraph 2 with proper words. ( no more than 7 words )
Why can’t you swim alone according to the passage? ( no more than 10 words)
What does the underlined word “it” probably refer to? ( no more than 3 words )
阅读下面的短文,并根据短文后的要求答题。(请注意问题后的字数要求)
Have you considered studying abroad, but are not sure whether it’s worth our time? Perhaps you’re not certain what benefits you can get from an extended stay in a foreign country. Here are some very excellent reasons why you should study in a foreign county?
1. Studying abroad is the best way __________. There is no better and more effective way to learn a language than to study in a culture that speaks the language you’re learning. You’re surrounded by the language on a daily basis ,seeing and hearing it in the proper cultural context. Language learning happens most quickly under these circumstances.
2. Studying abroad provides the opportunity to travel. Weekends and academic breaks allow you to venture out and explore your surroundings— both your immediate and more distant surroundings. Since studying abroad often puts you in a completely different country, you are much closer to places you might otherwise not have had the opportunity to visit.
3. Studying abroad allows you to get to know another culture at first hand. Cultural differences are more than just habits. A person’s culture reflects very deep thoughts, beliefs, and values that influence his or her way of life and that he or she views the world. Students who experience cultural differences personally can truly understand where other cultures are coming from.
4. Studying abroad affords you the opportunity to make friends around the world. While abroad, you will meet not only natives to the culture in which you are studying, but also other international students who are as far from home as you.
5. Studying abroad raises employment opportunities. As the world continues to become more globalized, American countries are increasingly investing dollars abroad, and companies from countries around the world continue invest in the international market. Through an employer’s eyes, a student who has studied abroad is independent。 Your experience living and studying in a foreign country, knowing about other culture and another language will make you have many advantages over the other job applicants.(求职者)
What is the best title of the passage? (no more than 10 words)
__________________________________________________________________________
Which sentence in the passage is the closest in meaning to the following one?
According to an employer, studying abroad makes a student more independent.
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Fill in the blank with proper words. (no more than 8 words)
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Which benefit do you think is most attractive to you? Why? (no more than 30 words)
__________________________________________________________________________
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Translate the underlined sentence into Chinese.
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[1]Not all parties have to be time-consuming and expensive to plan.It’s possible to have a party that’s simple but fun for everyone.Before you plan the party,it helps to write an outline of what kind of party you want to have,what foods and entertainment you’ll provide and so on.The following are tips on how to plan an excellent simple party.
[2]Choose a party theme that goes along with your interest and is easy to handle for you.If you’re a huge jazz fan and you have a large collection of jazz albums,build your party on a jazz theme.Visit local party supply stores and pick up music decorative items such as tablecloths,glasses,plates and napkins.
[3]Decide______available you have to spend on your party.Be practical about the length of time tasks are likely to take,such as how much time you spend on pre-party house cleaning,meal preparation and shopping for party materials.Add a time buffer(缓冲)into.your calculations.This way if anything goes wrong you will be able to deal with it.
[4]Prepare the food for your party.Make a trip to the store to get all your ingredients.Do this 2 or 3 days before the party as this will make sure all your ingredients are fresh and allow you to concentrate on meal preparation rather than running around searching for last-minute ingredients.Besides,you should make sure that if kids are part of the group,there are some delicious snacks for them.
[5]If you choose to hold it at home,make sure you have cleaned your home up and organized it at least a day or two before.Decorate the entrance hall or doorway to create a welcoming atmosphere.Make sure that the lighting is appropriate.Check the restrooms for extra toilet paper,tissue and soap.
What party themes should we choose?( no more than 12 words)
________________________________________________________________________
Fill in the blank in paragraph 3 with proper words.(no more than 5 words)
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Why should we buy ingredients 2 or 3 days before the party?(no more than 12 words)
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Complete the following statement with words from Paragraph4.(no more than 3 words)
Make sure to prepare some_____if there are kids in the party.
What does the underlined word“ it”in Paragraph 5 probably refer to?(no more than 2 words)
________________________________________________________________________
阅读下面短文并回答问题,然后将答案写到答题卡相应的位詈卜(请注意问题后的词数要求)。
[ l ]On the 15th of each month, a classroom at Pointers Run Elementary School in Maryland is packed with volunteers Students like Campbell Snoddy collect food ____________by students, parents and teachers from each classroom.Then, the children check to make sure the food isn't too old.After that, they sort it by category and put the cans and boxes into bags to be delivered to low -income senior citizens in the community.
[ 2 ] “I wanted to teach my daughter about charity.” says Julie Rosenthal, Who started the nonprofit program six years ago. "And I wanted to teach other kids in the community, too."
[ 3] Children make their deliveries around the 15th of the month when money from monthly Social
Security checks begins to run out and tough decisions between food and other needs have to be made.
[4 ] "I am on a fixed income and the food has helped me out considerably," says Linda Testennan, a food receiver.
[5 ] “ It was really fun, and it was great to make the senior citizens happy,” says Campbell. “ It was really cool.”
[6 ] Sofia Merkowitz, another Food on the 15th volunteer, agrees."I really liked it because it made me feel really good that people were so happy that they got food."
[7]Rosenthal says that is why she has children do more than fill a bag with donated food.
[8 ] "We want the children to have firsthand experience delivering the food to the people so that they can get that feeling of really making a difference in somebody’s life, a positive difference."
[ 9] The program started with one school delivering 30 bags of groceries. It has grown each year, and now involves 10 schools and several churches.Food on the 15th has delivered more than12, 000 bags so far.Rosenthal's goal is to expand Food on the 15th across the country and around the world.
What is the passage mainly talking about? (no more than 10 words)
List three things that the students do with the food in the program "Food on the 15th" ( no more than 20 words)
Fill in the blank in the first paragraph with proper words to complete the sentence.( no more than 3 words)
On what purpose did Julie Rosenthal start the non - profit program? ( no more than 15 words)
What does the underlined word "it" in Para 5 probably mean? ( no more than 6 words)
阅读下面短文,根据第58至第60小题的具体要求,尽可能简要回答问题,并将答案转写到答题卷上。
We leave London on 15 July, and we’ll be taking a flight to Morocco in northern Africa. We’re going to ride camels through the Sahara Desert. It’s the biggest desert in the world―about the size of the US! I expect it will be very hot, dry and dusty there. We’ll be travelling by camel with local guides, camping in tents and sleeping on the ground. I’ve heard that, in the Sahara, there is no shade during the day, and the stars seem especially brilliant on clear nights. I’ll bring a flashlight with me so that I’ll be able to see in the dark. Altogether, the trip will take six days. That means I’ll have to sit on a camel for almost a week―how uncomfortable! I hope my camel likes me!
Where will the writer take a trip to?(回答词数不超过5个词)
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What’s the weather like in the Sahara Desert?(回答词数不超过6个)
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How long will the writer stay there?(回答词数不超过3个)
_______________________________________________________________________
Effective(有效的)listening is important for improving communication between people. The sad part is that we want others to listen to us, but we ourselves are bad listeners, therefore creating barriers(障碍) to effective listening. Here are some common barriers to effective listening and some ways of overcoming them.
Before the speaker finishes speaking, you think you know the answer already and interrupt him or her. This is one of the most common barriers to effective listening. Respect is important for good listening. If you think you know the answer, you still should listen carefully to what’s being said, and then make ready a few questions and answers, wait for several seconds and then start speaking.
Whenever a speaker speaks, many a time listeners try to help the speaker. Though it may seem as if you’re trying to help, actually it isn’t so. In fact you should set up a separate(单独的) meeting for advising the speaker. If you feel you have anything to say, which the speaker may not know, you should politely ask if you may suggest anything.
In a heated discussion, the speakers sometimes don’t agree to each other’s opinions and treat it as a competition, and then it becomes a barrier to good listening. To overcome this, you should express your opinions after the speaker has finished speaking. Speak out wherever you disagree, but also if you agree on anything, you should point it out.
Why is effective listening important? (No more than 8 words.)2分
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According to Paragraph 2, what prevents effective listening? (No more than 8 words.)2分
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What will you do if you really want to say anything the speakers may not know? (No more than 10 words.)3分
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How can you avoid treating a heated discussion as a competition? (No more than 10 words.)3分
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阅读下面的短文和问题,根据短文内容,完成对该问题的回答。答语要书写工整,字迹清楚,结构正确,不多于八个单词。
It is essential to our children’s development that they are provided with life skills. It is of great importance that our children should be taught basic life skill lessons in order to live the life they dream of as they enter adulthood.
How we teach youth life skills is the focus of this article. We will explore and share life skill lessons with you so that the time you spend with each child is more productive and moves them to take positive action.
What should be included in a youth life skills program?
1)Financial literacy(理财素养). Financial literacy training can improve every aspect of a child’s life. Studies show that people that have developed financial literacy skills are healthier, have better relationships, and have more confidence. Financial literacy training is the foundation which all the other youth life skills can build on and support.
2)Relationships. Children need to understand the importance of encouraging relationships and develop the skills to maintain positive relationships. One key part of developing positive relationships is the ability to communicate effectively. This is a life skill that will not only benefit (使受益)their friendships but will help them in their careers as well.
3)Strengths development. It is important for adults to focus on the strengths of their children and help them to take their strengths to the next level. For most, what we are good at is also what we enjoy doing. Make your youth life skill program one that helps them follow their passions and build upon the strengths they have developed while growing up.
The focus of youth skills programs is recognizing students’ potential and providing them with the proper tools to enable them to develop their skill sets. You are helping to open up windows of opportunity for them and encouraging them throughout the process by making them feel worthy.
The goal of youth life skill programs is to help our children grow into responsible adults. Children cannot grow into the wonderful human beings they are meant to be when they are shut down, turned away and ignored. They need the proper guidance that will enable them to feel proud of their achievements. They also need the opportunity to express themselves in an environment that is willing to listen to them and to help them as well. There is only so much they can stand on their own; the rest is up to the adults that play important roles in their lives.
What is important for children to learn according to the article?
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Who do you think the article is written to, students or teachers?
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What can children benefit from financial literacy skills?
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How can we encourage children to keep learning the life skill course?
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What do children need so that they can learn to stand on their own?
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阅读下面文章,回答有关小题,注意括号内的词数。
Do you have a friend who is upset about his or her parent’s drinking? You want to do something to help, but what? Your friend may not talk about this with you, but you can still be a good friend. One out of four children lives with at least one adult who has alcoholism, so your friend is not alone.
●Be a good listener. Your friend may need someone to talk to. Listen to your friend and suggest that she or he talk to a trusted adult in addition to talking to you .You can offer a good listening ear, but sometimes an adult is needed for more serious things. Maybe you can suggest a caring adult for your friend to talk to, such as a teacher, a neighbor, or a grandparent. He will listen and support your friend, and he will not hurt your friend or put your friend down.
●Don’t spread gossip(闲话) about your friend’s family. It’s okay to tell your parents or another trusted adult what is going on, but respect your friend’s right by not telling other kids in your class.
●Ask your parents if your friend ___________your house, and then invite your friend over for enjoyable activities or to do homework together. Sometimes your friend might just need to get away and have fun being a kid.
●Don’t ride in a car when a friend’s parent has been drinking if you can avoid it. It is not safe. Call your parents, walk, or try to get a ride with an adult you know who has not been drinking. If you must get in the car with a drinking driver, sit in the middle of the back seat with your seat belt fastened. Lock your doors and try to stay calm.
1. What is the best title of the passage? (Please answer within 10 words)
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Which sentence in the passage can be replaced by the following one?
To help a friend in trouble, you can advise him or her to talk to someone who can be depended on for help.
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Please fill in the blank in the fourth paragraph with proper words of phrases to complete the sentence. (Please answer within 10 words)
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4. Which of the suggestions do you think is best for you if you find your friend in trouble? Why? (Please answer within 30 words)
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Translate the underlined sentence in the third paragraph into Chinese.
_______________________________________________________________________________
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阅读下面的短文,并根据短文后的要求答题。
The Japanese love to give gifts. This habit is not practiced only on special occasions, but it’s widely accepted as social duty and responsibility. Because gift-giving is such an important social aspect of Japanese life. It's important to be aware of some key factors.
Devalue the gifts you give. The important thing is to act and seem modest. You don't
want the receiver to think that you are arrogant or proud. Denigrate(贬低) your gift as much as possible. It doesn't matter if the label on the box bears the symbol for a famous brand. The Japanese value the appearance of a modest gift-giver who tries to stay away from praise.
Praise the gift you receive. Although praising may seem obvious, overpraising the gift is the key. It's also important to praise the fine taste of the gift-giver in making that particular choice for you. And don't forget to give a thousand and one thanks.
unless you are urged to do so. And when you do, you must take the utmost care in unwrapping it. Don't look eager, and be careful that you don't tear the paper or cut the ribbon. After observing, praising, and thanking, be sure to rewrap the gift as if it had never been opened. Try to appear as if you take great pride in the value of the gift.
Choose gifts with practical value. In general, don't buy things such as ornaments, vases, and kitchenware; it's already assumed that everyone has these things. To do so may suggest that you don't approve of the other person's taste. Also, most Japanese houses are very small and don't have extra space for useless junk.
What is the best title for the passage? (no more than l0 words)
Fill in the blank in the fourth paragraph with proper words. (no more than 6 words)
List three kinds of things you'd better not buy for a Japanese friend.
① ② ③
Translate the underlined sentence in the first paragraph into Chinese.
What do the Japanese usually do when they receive a gift? (no more than l0 words)
A vast dust storm that blew in from the deserts of Australia’s red centre has blanketed the country’s largest city and eastern coast in a red fog,causing widespread traffic chaos and severe flight delays.
Residents from Sydney in New South Wales to Canberra inland and towns in southern Queensland awoke to a red sky and greatly reduced visibility after the country’s worst dust storm in 70 years blew in overnight. The Sydney Harbor Bridge and Opera House were covered in the red fog and hundreds of people were reported to have breathing problems. Children,the elderly and those suffering from asthma (哮喘) or heart or lung diseases were advised to stay indoors ,as even healthy adults reported "itchy throats" and a metallic aftertaste in their mouths after walking through the thick fog.
Commuters used face masks,originally intended to protect them from the spread of swine flu, to hurry across the blocked streets on their way to work. Some schools were closed and sports activities were called off as the conditions pushed air pollution levels to 1500 times their normal levels – the highest on record.
Passengers at the busy Sydney Airport faced delays of up to six hours for international flights and three hours for domestic trips,and even some international flights were cancelled as visibility was reduced to just a few feet.
Locals,phoning radio stations to express their shock at the red dawn.” It’s like a nuclear winter morning," tourist Peter Wilson told Daily Telegraph, "It is so terrible." adding that when he awoke the sky was "bright red" and "all the cars were covered in dirt".
The dust hanging over Sydney had largely cleared by midafternoon, although national carrier Qantas said severe delays would last all day because of direction-changed and late-running flights.
The sand storm,which measured more than 310 miles wide and 620 miles long, was caused by dust clouds blowing east from Australia’s dry places,which has been attacked by the worst drought on record. It covered dozens of towns and cities in two states as strong winds swept away tons of topsoil threw it high into the sky and carried it hundreds of miles.
What was the face mask originally intended for? (No more than 10 words) (2 marks)[
When did most residents of Sydney discover the vast storm ? (No more than 3 words) (3 marks)
What do you think the underlined wordQantas is? (No more than 3 words)(2 marks)
What is the main idea of the last paragraph ? (No more than 10 words) (3 marks)
阅读下面短文,并按照题目要求用英语回答问题·(请注意问题后的词数要求)
【1】Classroom programs designed to improve elementary school students' social and emotional skills can also increase reading and math achievement, even if academic improvement is not a direct goal of the skills building, according to a study to be published this month in American Educational Research Journal.
【2】The benefit holds true for students across a range of social-economic backgrounds. In the study, "Efficacy of the Responsive Classroom Approach: Results from a Three Year, Longitudinal Randomized Controlled Trial," the researchers looked specifically at Responsive Classroom (RC), a widely-used social and emotional learning intervention(介入方式).
【3】The study is among just a handful of randomized controlled trials that have examined the effect of social and emotional learning interventions on student achievement.
【4】"We find that at the very least, supporting students' social and emotional growth in the classroom does not interfere with academic learning," said Rimm-Kaufman, professor at the University of Virginia Curry School of Education. "When teachers receive adequate levels of training and support, using practices that support students' social and emotional growth actually boosts achievement."
【5】Math and reading gains were similar among those students who qualified for free and reduced-priced lunch and those who were not.
【6】"The success of many curricula(课程)requires that teachers use effective classroom management and develop student confidence and autonomy(自主)," said Rimm-Kaufman. "Our trial of the Responsive Classroom approach suggests that teachers who take the time to foster relationships in the classroom and support children's self-control actually promote student achievement."
【7】"In a time of intense academic demands, many critics question the value of spending time on teaching social skills, building classroom relationships and supporting student autonomy," said Rimm-Kaufman. "Our research shows that time spent supporting children's social and emotional abilities can be a very wise investment."
What’s the main idea of the passage? (no more than 10)
____________________________________________
What skills were improved according to the study? (no more than 4)
____________________________________________
How do the researchers carry out the study? (no more than 6)
____________________________________________
What do critics question about the study? (no more than 15)
_____________________________________________
What’s the purpose of the passage? (no more than 6)
Advertising is used to make something such as a product, service, or idea known to the public. Many types of advertising are used for the purpose of building brands and increasing product sales. Advertising is present everywhere in our daily life.
Print media like magazines and newspapers allows advertisements to reach their readers. Magazines include articles and images intended to attract a specific(特定的)type of consumers. Newspaper advertising is not as effective as it was before because of the appearance of other types of advertisements.
Broadcast advertising includes TV and radio messages. Traditional forms of these types of advertisements are commercials(商业广告)shown during a television program or before a movie. Product placement advertising(植入式广告)is a less obvious way to promote a product. With product placement advertising, companies pay to have their product ‘used’ by an actor or actress in the program. When you see someone in a TV show or movie using a specific brand, this is product placement.
Internet advertising is one of the new types and can be achieved in a number of ways. Flash advertising refers to messages that jump onto your computer screen and often move around. They can be hard to close and are annoying, but a useful way of gaining your attention.
Outdoor advertising often uses advertising boards as its main way. Of course, the type of advertising also includes using cars with messages on them, or large signs placed on the sides of buses. They can also be signs in stadiums drawing the attention of large crowds.
What’s the purpose of advertising? (no more than 8 words) (2 marks)
______________________________________________________________________
What is product placement advertising? (no more than 11 words) (2 marks)
______________________________________________________________________
How does flash advertising draw your attention? ( no more than 15 words) (3 marks)
______________________________________________________________________
What does the passage mainly talk about? (no more than 6 words) (3 marks)
______________________________________________________________________
Speeding off in a stolen car, the thief thinks he has got a great catch. But he is for an unwelcome surprise. The car is fitted with a remote immobilizer, and a radio signal from a control centre miles away will ensure that once the thief switches the engine off, he will not be able to start it again.
The idea goes like this. A control box fitted to the car contains a mini-cellphone, a microprocessor and memory, and a GPS satellite positioning receiver. If the car is stolen, a coded cellphone signal will tell the control center to block the vehicle’s engine management system and prevent the engine being restarted.
In the UK, a set of technical fixes is already making life harder for car thieves. “The pattern of vehicle crime has changed”, says Martyn Randall, a security expert. He says it would only take him a few minutes to teach a person how to steal a car, using a bare minimum of tools. But only if the car is more than 10 years old.
Modern cars are far tougher to steal, as their engine management computer won’t allow them to start unless they receive a unique ID code beamed out by the ignition(点火) key. In the UK, technologies like this have helped achieve a 31% drop in vehicle-related crime since 1997.
But determined criminals are still managing to find other ways to steal cars, often by getting hold of the owner’s keys. And key theft is responsible for 40% of thefts of vehicles fitted with a tracking system.
If the car travels 100 metres without the driver confirming their ID, the system will send a signal to an operations centre that it has been stolen. The hundred metres minimum avoids false alarms due to inaccuracies in the GPS signal.
Staff at the centre will then contact the owner to confirm that the car really is missing, and keep police informed of the vehicle’s movements via the car’s GPS unit.
(Note: Answer the questions or complete the statements in No More Than 12 Words)
The remote immobilizer is fitted to a car to ____________________________________.
By saying “But only if the car is more than 10 years old”, Martyn Randall means that _____________________________________________________________.
Why modern cars are far tougher to steal?
_______________________________________________________________________.
What will the operations center do first after receiving an alarm?
_______________________________________________________________________.
阅读下面的短文,请根据短文后的要求答题(请注意问题后的字数要求)。
[1] When children go to camp, they are on their own, sometimes for the very first time in their lives. They have to decide what to wear, what to eat and which activities to participate in. As a result, they develop confidence and independence.
[2] As self-respect develops from learning to be on their own, children continue to try new activities. Also it is possible that they will engage in what they are unfamiliar with. In school, children do not experience success in the same way. Camp can be a school without failure because just having fun makes them a success.
[3] One of the greatest benefits of a camp experience is that children develop social skills. In a camp setting, a good counselor will make sure that every camper is included in the activity and that each child interacts with the others in a positive way. They learn to give and take, and they learn how to work and cooperate. Something as simple as clean-up, is not only there to get the cabin clean, but to promote a team atmosphere of working together which in turn results in friendship.
[4] The obvious benefit of camp is that campers make long lasting friendships. These friendships can often be unique and special because campers are living with each other and see the true personalities. Children learn to see others from a different viewpoint. Children tend to be accepted for who they are and do not have to be concerned about what they wear, what they are good at and how they look. This is because in a camp setting, respect and caring finally win out over materialistic objectives.
[5] In a word, camp does give children fun, friends and fulfillment.
What is the passage mainly about? (No more than 8 words)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
What can the campers develop in the end based on the passage? (No more than 3 words)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
According to Paragraph 2, what makes camping different from a school? (No more than 7 words)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
What do the campers gain according to Paragraph 3? (No more than 2 words)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
According to Paragraph 4, why can camping improve friendship? (No more than l0 words)
____________________________________________________________________________________________